UPSC Mains 2026 Philosophy Optional Paper I questions

28 questions from the Civil Services (Main) Examination 2026. Official UPSC paper (PDF) · All Philosophy Optional PYQs

1. How does Spinoza explain the relationship between states of mind and bodily processes?

2. Explain the distinction between Intuitive knowledge and Demonstrative knowledge as propounded by Locke.

3. Explain Hegel's idea that the concept of the Absolute as being is the concept of the Absolute as becoming as a process of self-development.

4. Compare and contrast the notion of entelechy as presented in Aristotle's and Leibniz's philosophy.

5. I can prove now, for instance, that two human hands exist.'" How does Moore use this illustration to prove the existence of an external world? Critically discuss.

6. What, according to Aristotle, is the fundamental problem of metaphysics? Discuss this in relation with Aristotle's account of the essence of the world, where he rejects the views of both the Atomists and Plato.

   20 marks

7. How does Hume account for ideas of reason? How does Kant respond to Hume's views in this regard? Critically discuss.

8. Describe Sartre's notion of consciousness as 'nothing'. How is it different from Husserl's notion of consciousness? Discuss.

   15 marks

9. Why are states of consciousness ascribed to anything at all and why are they ascribed to the same things to which we also ascribe physical properties? How does Strawson answer these questions in his work Individuals?

   20 marks

10. Explain Heidegger's conception of authenticity and inauthenticity as modes of Dasein's being.

    15 marks

11. Can words be viewed as the ideas in the mind of the person who uses them? Answer with reference to the philosophy of later Wittgenstein.

    5 marks

12. "'Wittgenstein's difficulty about not being able to say anything within a given language about the structure of that language can be met by the idea of a hierarchy of languages." Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons and justifications for your answer.

    20 marks

13. Analyze and discuss the different ways in which Kant and Hegel conceived the relationship between reality and our thinking about reality.

    5 marks

14. How did the logical positivists try to make philosophy a handmaid to science and establish a unified language of science? Why did their project fail? Discuss. 5 [ P.T.O.

15. According to Nydya view of inference (Anumana), what are the characteristics that ascertain the validity of inferential sign (Hetu)? Discuss.

16. How does the Buddhist theory of momentariness problematize the issue of human action and responsibility? Critically discuss.

17. Is Purusa one or many? Explain and examine the Sarhkhya position in this context.

18. Critically explain the nature of Samavaya (inherence) as propounded in Vaisesika philosophy.

19. Explain, as per Yoga philosophy, the nature of Samadhi with special reference to the difference between Samprajfiata Samadhi and Asamprajfiata Samadhi.

20. "'A mango tree is grown out of a mango How do the Samkhya philosophers explain this process through their theory of causation by rejecting their rival perspectives?

    20 marks

21. Explain the basic characteristics of Sri Aurobindo's Integral Yoga for the realization of supramental consciousness through triple transformation.

    15 marks

22. Bring out the main points of contestation between Naiyadyikas and Prabhakara Mimamsakas with reference to knowledge through words (Sabdabodha).

    5 marks

23. Critically explain the arguments presented by the Akhyativadins for explaining erroneous cognition. Evaluate the arguments against Akhyativadins by the Anyathakhyativadins.

    20 marks

24. Explain the meaning of seven steps of judgement (Saptabhanginaya) and its application in Jaina's Syadvada for advocating a philosophy of non-absolutism (Anekantavada).

    5 marks

25. Do you agree with Nimbarka's explanation of the nature of God, Souls and Matter? Justify your answer.

    5 marks

26. Present an account of Upamana as an instrument of knowledge (Pramana). How is Nyaya view of Upamana different from Mimarhsa view? Discuss.

    20 marks

27. Critically explain Ramanuja's conception of Brahman with special reference to the difficulties in explaining the relation of Brahman to Spirit (Cit) and Matter (Acit). 5 [9.7..0.

28. Why does the Dualistic School of Vedanta consider that differences (Bhedas) have separate existence and constitute the unique nature of things? Answer with reference to the theory of five-fold difference (Paficavidhabheda).